Clanchy, M. T. "Trusting Writing." Chapter 9 in From Memory to Written Record: England, 1066-1307, 294-327. 2d ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.

Thesis: In describing the growth of a literate mentality, Clanchy contends that trust in writing developed as people became more familiar with documents and their uses. However, "documents did not immediately inspire trust." Rather, during the transition from memory to written record, writing remained of secondary importance. In general, oaths and public ceremonies carried more credibility than the written word.

I. Memory and writing

A. Without documents, truth remained simple and personal

B. Truth was flexible/up to date; based on the memory of the oldest living wise man

C. Authenticity of documents questioned due to lack of dates/places of issue

D. Monks were primary scribes and greatest forgers

E. Roman legal practice existed in theory, but not in practice

1. Each document precisely dated and written by an authorized scribe/notary

2. Ideally, notary registered a copy with a public authority

F. Non-literates did not understand documents, therefore they distrusted written proof

II. Dating documents

A. Authenticity based on recorded year, month, day, hour

B. Dates/places of issue placed documents/creators in temporal/geographical perspective

C. Precise dating began in last decade of twelfth century

1. Domesday Book, 1086

2. St. Augustine text, 1167

3. Buildwas book, 1176

4. Royal letters dated from accession of Richard I, 1189

D. No standard dating format

1. Charters merely confirmed completed transactions

2. Difficult to compute dates without printed diairies

3. Presumptuous/blasphemous to relate document to Christ (B.C./A.D.)

4. Short-range view by non-religious, i.e. this year or notable event

E. Dates included Anno Domini and a memorable event

F. In England, dates related to church feasts and regnal years

G. Dates and formats firmly established by 1300

III. Signing documents

A. Signatures required, but diversity of opinion re: valid signatures

B. Notaries state name, authority, and distinctive signum (Roman method)

IV. The symbolism of seals and crosses

A. Medieval seals

1. Device/pictorial symbol in center

2. Legend/inscription around circumference bearing sealer's name

3. Identical/efficient

4. Possessor of seal could be his own notary

5. Seals helped to bridge the gap between literate and non-literate

B. Crosses

1. Distinctive autograph and most sacred of symbols

2. Used, not due to illiteracy, but because of symbolism

C. "Sealing was the first step towards the automation of writing."

V. Forging documents

A. Often, forged charters suited contemporary notions

B. "Forgers recreated the past in an acceptable literate form."

C. Judging authenticity complicated because literate criteria not initially applied

D. "Without defined standards of authenticity, there could be no definite criteria for distinguishing forgeries from authentic documents."

E. "Forgeries" sometimes used to fulfill the intent of a charter's author

F. Twelfth Century = golden age of forgery.

G. "The forgery or renewal of documents was essentially a product of the movement from memory to written record and is best understood in that context."

Prior to the thirteenth century, "principles of good documentary procedure were known to experts. The problem lay in putting academic theory into general practice. . . . By the thirteenth century documentary proof had become more familiar and routine."

"Making records is initially a product of distrust rather than social progress." [from intro]